Micrographia Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon 20Whether the appearance of the Pike of Tenerif, and several other
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Literature · Science
Micrographia Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon 20
Whether the appearance of the Pike of Tenerif, and several other
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high Mountains, at so much greater a distance then seems to agree with their respective heights, be not to be attributed to the Curvature of the visual Ray, that is made by its passing obliquely through so differingly Dense a Medium from the top to the eye very far distant in the Horizon: For since we have already, I hope, made it very probable, that there is such an inflection of the Rays by the differing density of the parts of the Air; and since I have found, by several Experiments made on places comparatively not very high, and have yet found the pressure sustain’d by those parts of the Air at the top and bottom, and also their differing Expansions very considerable: Insomuch that I have found the pressure of the Atmosphere lighter at the top of St. Paul’s Steeple in London (which is about two hundred foot high) then at the bottom by a sixtieth or fiftieth part, and the expansion at the top greater then that at the bottom by neer about so much also; for the Mercurial Cylinder at the bottom was about 39. inches, and at the top half an inch lower; the Air also included in the Weather-glass, that at the bottom fill’d only 155. spaces, at the top fill’d 158. though the heat at the top and bottom was found exactly the same with a scal’d Thermometer: I think it very rational to suppose, that the greatest Curvature of the Rays is made nearest the Earth, and that the inflection of the Rays, above 3. or 4. miles upwards, is very inconsiderable, and therefore that by this means such calculations of the height of Mountains, as are made from the distance they are visible in the Horizon, from the supposal that that Ray is a straight Line (that from the top of the Mountain is, as ’twere, a Tangent to the Horizon whence it is seen) which really is a Curve, is very erroneous. Whence, I suppose, proceeds the reason of the exceedingly differing Opinions and Assertions of several Authors, about the height of several very high Hills.
8. Whether this Inflection of the Air will not very much alter the supposed distances of the Planets, which seem to have a very great dependence upon the Hypothetical refraction or inflection of the Air, and that refraction upon the hypothetical height and density of the Air: For since (as I hope) I have here shewn the Air to be quite otherwise then has been hitherto suppos’d, by manifesting it to be, both of a vast, at least an uncertain, height, and of an unconstant and irregular density; It must necessarily follow, that its inflection must be varied accordingly: And therefore we may hence learn, upon what sure grounds all the Astronomers hitherto have built, who have calculated the distance of the Planets from their Horizontal Parallax; for since the Refraction and Parallax are so nearly ally’d, that the one cannot be known without the other, especially by any wayes that have been yet attempted, how uncertain must the Parallax be, when the Refraction is unknown? And how easie is it for Astronomers to assign what distance they please to the Planets, and defend them, when they have such a curious subterfuge as that of Refraction, wherein a very little variation will allow them liberty enough to place the Celestial Bodies at what distance they please.
If therefore we would come to any certainty in this point, we must go other wayes to work; and as I have here examined the height and refractive property of the Air by other wayes then are usual, so must we find the Parallax of the Planets by wayes not yet practiced; and to this end, I cannot imagine any better way, then the Observations of them by two persons at very far distant parts of the Earth, that lye as neer as may be under the same Meridian, or Degree of longitude, but differing as much in latitude, as there can be places conveniently found: These two persons, at certain appointed times, should (as near as could be) both at the same time, observe the way of the Moon, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn, amongst the fixt Stars, with a good large Telescope, and making little Iconismes, or pictures, of the small fixed Stars, that appear to each of them to lye in or near the way of the Center of the Planet, and the exact measure of the apparent Diameter; from the comparing of such Observations together, we might certainly know the true distance, or Parallax, of the Planet. And having any one true Parallax of these Planets, we might very easily have the other by their apparent Diameters, which the Telescope likewise affords us very accurately. And thence their motions might be much better known, and their Theories more exactly regulated. And for this purpose I know not any one place more convenient for such an Observation to be made in, then in the Island of St. Helena, upon the Coast of Africk, which lyes about sixteen degrees to the Southwards of the Line, and is very near, according to the latest Geographical Maps, in the same Meridian with London; for though they may not perhaps lye exactly in the same, yet their Observations, being ordered according to what I shall anon shew, it will not be difficult to find the true distance of the Planet. But were they both under the same Meridian, it would be much better.
And because Observations may be much easier, and more accurately made with good Telescopes, then with any other Instruments, it will not, I suppose, seem impertinent to explain a little what wayes I judge most fit and convenient for that particular. Such therefore as shall be the Observators for this purpose, should be furnished with the best Telescopes that can be had, the longer the better and more exact will their Observations be, though they are somewhat the more difficultly manag’d. These should be fitted with a Rete, or divided Scale, plac’d at such a distance within the Eye-glass, that they may be distinctly seen, which should be the measures of minutes and seconds; by this Instrument each Observator should, at certain prefixt times, observe the Moon, or other Planet, in, or very near, the Meridian; and because it may be very difficult to find two convenient stations that will happen to be just under the same Meridian, they shall, each of them, observe the way of the Planet, both for an hour before, and an hour after, it arrive at the Meridian; and by a line, or stroke, amongst the small fixed Stars, they shall denote out the way that each of them observ’d the Center of the Planet to be mov’d in for those two hours: These Observations each of them shall repeat for many dayes together, that both it may happen, that both of them may sometimes make their Observations together, and that from divers Experiments we may be the better assured of what certainty and exactness such kind of Observations are like to prove. And because many of the Stars which may happen to come within the compass of such an Iconism, or Map, may be such as are only visible through a good Telescope, whose Positions perhaps have not been noted, nor their longitudes, or latitudes, any where remarked; therefore each Observator should indeavour to insert some fixt Star, whose longitude, and latitude, is known; or with his Telescope he shall find the Position of some notable telescopical Star, inserted in his Map, to some known fixt Star, whose place in the Zodiack is well defin’d.
Having by this means found the true distance of the Moon, and having observed well the apparent Diameter of it at that time with a good Telescope, it is easie enough, by one single Observation of the apparent Diameter of the Moon with a good Glass, to determine her distances in any other part of her Orbit, or Dragon, and consequently, some few Observations will tell us, whether she be mov’d in an Ellipsis, (which, by the way, may also be found, even now, though I think we are yet ignorant of her true distance) and next (which without such Observations, I think, we shall not be sure of) we may know exactly the bigness of that Ellipsis, or Circle, and her true velocity in each part, and thereby be much the better inabled to find out the true cause of all her Motions. And though, even now also, we may, by such Observations in one station, as here at London, observe the apparent Diameter and motion of the Moon in her Dragon, and consequently be inabled to make a better ghess at the Species or kind of Curve, in which she is mov’d, that is, whether it be sphærical, or elliptical, or neither, and with what proportional velocities she is carried in that Curve; yet till her true Parallax be known, we cannot determine either.
Next, for the true distance of the Sun, the best way will be, by accurate Observations, made in both these forementioned stations, of some convenient Eclipse of the Sun, many of which may so happen, as to be seen by both; for the Penumbra of the Moon may, if she be sixty Semidiameters distant from the Earth, and the Sun above seven thousand, extend to about seventy degrees on the Earth, and consequently be seen by Observators as far distant as London, and St. Helena, which are not full sixty nine degrees distant. And this would much more accurately, then any way that has been yet used, determine the Parallax, and distance, of the Sun; for as for the Horizontal Parallax I have already shewn it sufficiently uncertain; nor is the way of finding it by the Eclipse of the Moon any other then hypothetical; and that by the difference of the true and apparent quadrature of the Moon is not less uncertain, witness their Deductions from it, who have made use of it; for Vendeline puts that difference to be but 4′.30″. whence he deduces a vast distance of the Sun, as I have before shewn. Ricciolo makes it full 30′.00. but Reinoldus, and Kircher, no less then three degrees. And no wonder, for if we examine the Theory, we shall find it so complicated with uncertainties.
First, From the irregular surface of the Moon, and from several Parallaxes, that unless the Dichotomy happen in the Nonagesimus of the Ecliptick, and that in the Meridian, &c. all which happen so very seldom, that it is almost impossible to make them otherwise then uncertainly. Besides, we are not yet certain, but that there may be somewhat about the Moon analogus to the Air about the Earth, which may cause a refraction of the light of the Sun, and consequently make a great difference in the apparent dichotomy of the Moon. Their way indeed is very rational and ingenious; and such as is much to be preferred before the way by the Horizontal Parallax, could all the uncertainties be remov’d, and were the true distance of the Moon known.
But because we find by the Experiments of Vendiline, Reinoldus, &c. that Observations of this kind are very uncertain also: It were to be wisht, that such kind of Observations, made at two very distant stations, were promoted. And it is so much the more desirable, because, from what I have now shewn of the nature of the Air, it is evident, that the refraction may be very much greater then all the Astronomers hitherto have imagined it: And consequently, that the distance of the Moon, and other Planets, may be much lesse then what they have hitherto made it.
For first, this Inflection, I have here propounded, will allow the shadow of the Earth to be much shorter then it can be made by the other Hypothesis of refraction, and consequently, the Moon will not suffer an Eclipse, unless it comes very much nearer the Earth then the Astronomers hitherto have supposed it.
Secondly, There will not in this Hypothesis be any other shadow of the Earth, such as Kepler supposes, and calls the Penumbra, which is the shadow of the refracting Atmosphere; for the bending of the Rays being altogether caus’d by Inflection, as I have already shewn, all that part which is ascribed by Kepler, and others after him, to the Penumbra, or dark part, which is without the umbra terræ, does clear vanish; for in this Hypothesis there is no refracting surface of the Air, and consequently there can be no shadows, such as appear in the ninth Figure of the 37. Scheme, where let ABCD represent the Earth, and EFGH the Atmosphere, which according to Keplers supposition, is like a Sphære of Water terminated with an exact surface EFGH, let the lines MF, LB, ID, KH, represent the Rays of the Sun; ’tis manifest, that all the Rayes between LB, and ID, will be reflected by the surface of the Earth BAD, and consequently, the conical space BOD would be dark and obscure; but, say the followers of Kepler, the Rays between MF, and LB, and between ID, and KH, falling on the Atmosphere, are refracted, both at their ingress and egress out of the Atmosphere, nearer towards the Axis of the sphærical shadow CO, and consequently, inlighten a great part of that former dark Cone, and shorten, and contract, its top to N. And because of this Reflection of these Rays, say they, there is superinduc’d another shell of a dark Cone FPH, whose Apex P is yet further distant from the Earth: By this Penumbra, say they, the Moon is Eclipsed, for it alwayes passes between the lines 12, and 34.
To which I say, That if the Air be such, as I have newly shewn it to be, and consequently cause such an inflection of the Rays that fall into it, those dark Penumbra’s FYZQ, HXVT, and ORPS, will all vanish. For if we suppose the Air indefinitely extended, and to be no where bounded with a determinate refracting surface, as I have shewn it uncapable of having, from the nature of it; it will follow, that the Moon will no where be totally obscured, but when it is below the Apex N, of the dark blunt Cone of the Earth’s shadow: Now, from the supposition, that the Sun is distant about seven thousand Diameters, the point N, according to calculation, being not above twenty five terrestrial Semidiameters from the Center of the Earth: It follows, that whensoever the Moon eclipsed is totally darkned, without affording any kind of light, it must be within twenty five Semidiameters of the Earth, and consequently much lower then any Astronomers have hitherto put it.
This will seem much more consonant to the rest of the secundary Planets; for the highest of Jupiter’s Moons is between twenty and thirty _Jovial Semidiameters_ distant from the Center of Jupiter; and the Moons of Saturn much about the same number of Saturnial Semidiameters from the Center of that Planet.
But these are but conjectures also, and must be determin’d by such kind of Observations as I have newly mention’d.
Nor will it be difficult, by this Hypothesis, to salve all the appearances of Eclipses of the Moon, for in this Hypothesis also, there will be on each side of the shadow of the Earth, a Penumbra, not caus’d by the Refraction of the Air, as in the Hypothesis of Kepler; but by the faint inlightning of it by the Sun: For if, in the sixth Figure, we suppose ESQ, and GSR, to be the Rays that terminate the shadow from either side of the Earth; ESQ coming from the upper limb of the Sun, and GSR from the under; it will follow, that the shadow of the Earth, within those Rays, that is, the Cone GSE, will be totally dark. But the Sun being not a point, but a large area of light, there will be a secondary dark Cone of shadow EPG, which will be caus’d by the earth’s hindring part of the Rays of the Sun from falling on the parts GPR, and EPQ, of which halved shadow, or Penumbra, that part will appear brightest which lyes nearest the terminating Rayes GP, and EP, and those darker that lye nearest to GS, and ES: when therefore the Moon appears quite dark in the middle of the Eclipse, she must be below S, that is, between S and F; when she appears lighter near the middle of the Eclipse, she must pass some where between RQ and S; and when she is alike light through the whole Eclipse, she must pass between RQ, and P.
Observ. LIX. Of multitudes of small Stars_ discoverable by the Telescope._
Having, in the last Observation, premis’d some particulars observable in the medium, through which we must look upon Cœlestial Objects, I shall here add one Observation of the Bodies themselves; and for a specimen I have made choice of the Pleiades, or seven Stars, commonly so called (though in our time and Climate there appear no more then six to the naked eye) and this I did the rather, because the deservedly famous Galileo, having publisht a Picture of this Asterisme, was able, it seems, with his Glass to discover no more then thirty six, whereas with a pretty good twelve foot Telescope, by which I drew this 38 Iconism, I could very plainly discover seventy eight, placed in the order they are ranged in the Figure, and of as many differing Magnitudes as the Asterisks, wherewith they are Marked, do specifie; there being no less then fourteen several Magnitudes of those Stars, which are compris’d within the draught, the biggest whereof is not accounted greater then one of the third Magnitude; and indeed that account is much too big, if it be compared with other Stars of the third Magnitude, especially by the help of a Telescope; for then by it may be perceiv’d, that its splendor, to the naked eye, may be somewhat augmented by the three little Stars immediately above it, which are near adjoyning to it. The Telescope also discovers a great variety, even in the bigness of those, commonly reckon’d, of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth Magnitude; so that should they be distinguish’d thereby, those six Magnitudes would, at least, afford no less then thrice that number of Magnitudes, plainly enough distinguishable by their Magnitude, and brightness; so that a good twelve foot Glass would afford us no less then twenty five several Magnitudes. Nor are these all, but a longer Glass does yet further, both more nicely distinguish the Magnitudes of those already noted, and also discover several other of smaller Magnitudes, not discernable by the twelve foot Glass: Thus have I been able, with a good thirty six foot Glass, to discover many more Stars in the Pleiades then are here delineated, and those of three or four distinct Magnitudes less then any of those spots of the fourteenth Magnitude. And by the twinkling of divers other places of this Asterisme, when the Sky was very clear, I am apt to think, that with longer Glasses, or such as would bear a bigger aperture, there might be discovered multitudes of other small Stars, yet inconspicuous. And indeed, for the discovery of small Stars, the bigger the aperture be, the better adapted is the Glass; for though perhaps it does make the several specks more radiant, and glaring, yet by that means, uniting more Rays very near to one point, it does make many of those radiant points conspicuous, which, by putting on a less aperture, may be found to vanish; and therefore, both for the discovery of the fixt Star, and for finding the Satellites of Jupiter, before it be out of the day, or twilight, I alwayes leave the Object-glass as clear without any aperture as I can, and have thereby been able to discover the Satellites a long while before; I was able to discern them, when the smaller apertures were put on; and at other times, to see multitudes of other smaller Stars, which a smaller aperture makes to disappear.
In that notable Asterism also of the Sword of Orion, where the ingenious Monsieur Hugens van Zulichem has discovered only three little Stars in a cluster, I have with a thirty six foot Glass, without any aperture (the breadth of the Glass being about some three inches and a half) discover’d five, and the twinkling of divers others up and down in divers parts of that small milky Cloud.
So that ’tis not unlikely, but that the meliorating of Telescopes will afford as great a variety of new Discoveries in the Heavens, as better Microscopes would among small terrestrial Bodies, and both would give us infinite cause, more and more to admire the omnipotence of the Creator.
Observ. LX. Of the Moon.
Having a pretty large corner of the Plate for the seven Starrs, void, for the filling it up, I have added one small Specimen of the appearance of the parts of the Moon, by describing a small spot of it, which, though taken notice of, both by the Excellent Hevelius, and called _Mons Olympus_ (though I think somewhat improperly, being rather a vale) and represented by the Figure X. of the 38. Scheme, and also by the Learn’d Ricciolus, who calls it Hipparchus, and describes it by the Figure Y, yet how far short both of them come of the truth, may be somewhat perceiv’d by the draught, which I have here added of it, in the Figure Z, (which I drew by a thirty foot Glass, in October 1664. just before the Moon was half inlightned) but much better by the Reader’s diligently observing it himself, at a convenient time, with a Glass of that length, and much better yet with one of threescore foot long, for through these it appears a very spacious Vale, incompassed with a ridge of Hills, not very high in comparison of many other in the Moon, nor yet very steep. The Vale it self ABCD, is much of the figure of a Pear, and from several appearances of it, seems to be some very fruitful place, that is, to have its surface all covered over with some kinds of vegetable substances; for in all positions of the light on it, it seems to give a much fainter reflection then the more barren tops of the incompassing Hills, and those a much fainter then divers other cragged, chalky, or rocky Mountains of the Moon. So that I am not unapt to think, that the Vale may have Vegetables analogus to our Grass, Shrubs, and Trees; and most of these incompassing Hills may be covered with so thin a vegetable Coat, as we may observe the Hills with us to be, such as the short Sheep pasture which covers the Hills of Salisbury Plains.
Up and down in several parts of this place here describ’d (as there are multitudes in other places all over the surface of the Moon) may be perceived several kinds of pits, which are shap’d almost like a dish, some bigger, some less, some shallower, some deeper, that is, they seem to be a hollow Hemisphere, incompassed with a round rising bank, as if the substance in the middle had been digg’d up, and thrown on either side. These seem to me to have been the effects of some motions within the body of the Moon, analogus to our Earthquakes, by the eruption of which, as it has thrown up a brim, or ridge, round about, higher then the Ambient surface of the Moon, so has it left a hole, or depression, in the middle, proportionably lower; divers places resembling some of these, I have observ’d here in England, on the tops of some Hills, which might have been caus’d by some Earthquake in the younger dayes of the world. But that which does most incline me to this belief, is, first, the generality and diversity of the Magnitude of these pits all over the body of the Moon. Next, the two experimental wayes, by which I have made a representation of them.
The first was with a very soft and well temper’d mixture of Tobacco-pipe clay and Water, into which, if I let fall any heavy body, as a Bullet, it would throw up the mixture round the place, which for a while would make a representation, not unlike these of the Moon; but considering the state and condition of the Moon, there seems not any probability to imagine, that it should proceed from any cause analogus to this; for it would be difficult to imagine whence those bodies should come; and next, how the substance of the Moon should be so soft; but if a Bubble be blown under the surface of it, and suffer’d to rise, and break; or if a Bullet, or other body, sunk in it, be pull’d out from it, these departing bodies leave an impression on the surface of the mixture, exactly like these of the Moon, save that these also quickly subside and vanish. But the second, and most notable, representation was, what I observ’d in a pot of boyling Alabaster, for there that powder being by the eruption of vapours reduc’d to a kind of fluid consistence, if, whil’st it boyls, it be gently remov’d besides the fire, the Alabaster presently ceasing to boyl, the whole surface, especially that where some of the last Bubbles have risen, will appear all over covered with small pits, exactly shap’d like these of the Moon, and by holding a lighted Candle in a large dark Room, in divers positions to this surface, you may exactly represent all the Phænomena of these pits in the Moon, according as they are more or less inlightned by the Sun.
And that there may have been in the Moon some such motion as this, which may have made these pits, will seem the more probable, if we suppose it like our Earth, for the Earthquakes here with us seem to proceed from some such cause, as the boyling of the pot of Alabaster, there seeming to be generated in the Earth from some subterraneous fires, or heat, great quantities of vapours, that is, of expanded aerial substances, which not presently finding a passage through the ambient parts of the Earth, do, as they are increased by the supplying and generating principles, and thereby (having not sufficient room to expand themselves) extreamly condens’d, at last overpower, with their elastick properties, the resistence of the incompassing Earth, and lifting it up, or cleaving it, and so shattering of the parts of the Earth above it, do at length, where they find the parts of the Earth above them more loose, make their way upwards, and carrying a great part of the Earth before them, not only raise a small brim round about the place, out of which they break, but for the most part considerable high Hills and Mountains, and when they break from under the Sea, divers times, mountainous Islands; this seems confirm’d by the Vulcans in several places of the Earth, the mouths of which, for the most part, are incompassed with a Hill of a considerable height, and the tops of those Hills, or Mountains, are usually shap’d very much like these pits, or dishes, of the Moon: Instances of this we have in the descriptions of Ætna in Sicily, of Hecla in Iceland, of Tenerif in the Canaries, of the several Vulcans in New-Spain, describ’d by Gage, and more especially in the eruption of late years in one of the Canary Islands. In all of which there is not only a considerable high Hill raised about the mouth of the Vulcan, but, like the spots of the Moon, the top of those Hills are like a dish, or bason. And indeed, if one attentively consider the nature of the thing, one may find sufficient reason to judge, that it cannot be otherwise; for these eruptions, whether of fire, or smoak, alwayes raising great quantities of Earth before them, must necessarily, by the fall of those parts on either side, raise very considerable heaps.
Now, both from the figures of them, and from several other circumstances; these pits in the Moon seem to have been generated much after the same manner that the holes in Alabaster, and the Vulcans of the Earth are made. For first, it is not improbable, but that the substance of the Moon may be very much like that of our Earth, that is, may consist of an earthy, sandy, or rocky substance, in several of its superficial parts, which parts being agitated, undermin’d, or heav’d up, by eruptions of vapours, may naturally be thrown into the same kind of figured holes, as the small dust, or powder of Alabaster. Next, it is not improbable, but that there may be generated, within the body of the Moon, divers such kind of internal fires and heats, as may produce such Exhalations; for since we can plainly enough discover with a Telescope, that there are multitudes of such kind of eruptions in the body of the Sun it self, which is accounted the most noble Ætherial body, certainly we need not be much scandaliz’d at such kind of alterations, or corruptions, in the body of this lower and less considerable part of the universe, the Moon, which is only secundary, or attendant, on the bigger, and more considerable body of the Earth. Thirdly, ’tis not unlikely, but that supposing such a sandy or mouldring substance to be there found, and supposing also a possibility of the generation of the internal elastical body (whether you will call it air or vapours) ’tis not unlikely, I say, but that there is in the Moon a principle of gravitation, such as in the Earth.
And to make this probable, I think, we need no better Argument, then the roundness, or globular Figure of the body of the Moon it self, which we may perceive very plainly by the Telescope, to be (bating the small inequality of the Hills and Vales in it, which are all of them likewise shap’d, or levelled, as it were, to answer to the center of the Moons body) perfectly of a Sphærical figure, that is, all the parts of it are so rang’d (bating the comparatively small ruggedness of the Hills and Dales) that the outmost bounds of them are equally distant from the Center of the Moon, and consequently, it is exceedingly probable also, that they are equidistant from the Center of gravitation; and indeed, the figure of the superficial parts of the Moon are so exactly shap’d, according as they should be, supposing it had a gravitating principle as the Earth has, that even the figure of those parts themselves is of sufficient efficacy to make the gravitation, and the other two suppositions probable: so that the other suppositions may be rather prov’d by this considerable Circumstance, or Observation, then this suppos’d Explication can by them; for he that shall attentively observe with an excellent Telescope, how all the Circumstances, notable in the shape of the superficial parts, are, as it were, exactly adapted to suit with such a principle, will, if he well considers the usual method of Nature in its other proceedings, find abundant argument to believe it to have really there also such a principle; for I could never observe, among all the mountainous or prominent parts of the Moon (whereof there is a huge variety) that any one part of it was plac’d in such a manner, that if there should be a gravitating, or attracting principle in the body of the Moon, it would make that part to fall, or be mov’d out of its visible posture.
Next, the shape and position of the parts is such, that they all seem put into those very shapes they are in by a gravitating power: For first, there are but very few clifts, or very steep declivities in the ascent of these Mountains; for besides those Mountains, which are by Hevelius call’d the Apennine Mountains, and some other, which seem to border on the Seas of the Moon, and those only upon one side, as is common also in those Hills that are here on the Earth; there are very few that seem to have very steep ascents, but, for the most part, they are made very round, and much resemble the make of the Hills and Mountains also of the Earth; this may be partly perceived by the Hills incompassing this Vale, which I have here describ’d; and as on the Earth also, the middlemost of these Hills seems the highest, so is it obvious also, through a good Telescope, in those of the Moon; the Vales also in many are much shap’d like those of the Earth, and I am apt to think, that could we look upon the Earth from the Moon, with a good Telescope, we might easily enough perceive its surface to be very much like that of the Moon.
Now whereas in this small draught, (as there would be multitudes if the whole Moon were drawn after this manner) there are several little Ebullitions, or Dishes, even in the Vales themselves, and in the incompassing Hills also; this will, from this supposition, (which I have, I think, upon very good reason taken) be exceeding easily explicable; for, as I have several times also observ’d, in the surface of Alabaster so ordered, as I before describ’d, so may the later eruptions of vapours be even in the middle, or on the edges of the former; and other succeeding these also in time may be in the middle or edges of these, &c. of which there are Instances enough in divers parts of the body of the Moon, and by a boyling pot of Alabaster will be sufficiently exemplifi’d.
To conclude therefore, it being very probable, that the Moon has a principle of gravitation, it affords an excellent distinguishing Instance in the search after the cause of gravitation, or attraction, to hint, that it does not depend upon the diurnal or turbinated motion of the Earth, as some have somewhat inconsiderately supposed and affirmed it to do; for if the Moon has an attractive principle, whereby it is not only shap’d round, but does firmly contain and hold all its parts united, though many of them seem as loose as the sand on the Earth, and that the Moon is not mov’d about its Center; then certainly the turbination cannot be the cause of the attraction of the Earth, and therefore some other principle must be thought of, that will agree with all the secundary as well as primary Planets. But this, I confess, is but a probability, and not a demonstration, which (from any Observation yet made) it seems hardly capable of, though how successful future indeavours (promoted by the meliorating of Glasses, and observing particular circumstances) may be in this, or any other, kind, must be with patience expected.
FINIS.
THE TABLE.
Observat. 1. Of the point of a Needle.
_A Description of it: what other Bodies have the sharpest points: of the ruggedness of polisht Metal. A description of a printed point. Of very small writing, and the use of it for secret intelligence: the cause of the coursness of printed lines and points._
Observ. 2. Of the Edge of a Razor.
_A description of it: the causes of its roughness: of the roughness of very well polisht Optick Glasses._.
Obser. 3. Of fine Lawn.
_A description of it: A silken Flax mention’d, an attempt to explicate the Phænomena of it, with a conjecture at the cause of the gloss of Silk._
Observ. 4. Of Tabby.
_A short description of it. A conjecture about the reason why Silk is so susceptible of vivid colours: and why Flax and Hair is not. A conjecture, that it may perhaps be possible to spin a kind of artificial Silk, out of some glutinous substance that may equalize natural Silk._
Observ. 5. Of water’d Silks.
_The great unaccurateness of artificial works. A description of a piece of water’d Silk; an Explication of the cause of the Phænomena: the way by which that operation is perform’d: some other Phænomena mention’d depending on the same cause._
Observ. 6. Of Glass Canes.
_The exceeding smallness of some of these Bodies. By what means the hollowness of these small pipes was discover’d: several Phænomena of it mention’d. An attempt to explicate them from the congruity and incongruity of Bodies: what those proprieties are. A hypothetical explication of fluidity: of the fluidity of the air, and several other Phænomena of it: of congruity & incongruity; illustrated with several Experiments: what effects may be ascrib’d to these properties: an explication of the roundness of the surface of fluid Bodies: how the ingress of fluid bodies into a small hole of an heterogeneous body is hindred by incongruity; a multitude of Phænomena explicable hereby. Several Quæries propounded; 1. Concerning the propagation of light through differing mediums. 2. Concerning Gravity. 3. Concerning the roundness of the Sun, Moon, and Planets. 4. Concerning the roundness of Fruits, Stones, and divers artificial Bodies. His Highness Prince Rupert’s way of making Shot. Of the roundness of Hail. Of the grain of Kettering Stone, and of the Sparks of fire. 5. Concerning springiness and tenacity. 6. Concerning the original of Fountains; several Histories and Experiments relating thereto. 7. Concerning the dissolution of Bodies in Liquors. 8. Concerning the universality of this Principle: what method was taken in making and applying experiments. The explication of filtration, and several other Phænomena; such as the motion of Bodies on the surface of Liquors; several Experiments mention’d to this purpose. Of the height to which the water may rise in these Pipes; and a conjecture about the juices of Vegetables, & the use of their pores. A further explication of Congruity: And an attempt of solving the Phænomena of the strange Experiment of the suspension of the Mercury at a much greater height then thirty inches. The efficacy of immediate contact, and the reason of it._
Observ. 7. Of Glass drops.
_Several Experiments made with these small Bodies. The manner of the breaking and flawing of them, explicated by Figures. What other bodies will be flawed much in the same manner: some other tryals, and a description of the Drops themselves: some conjectures at the cause of the Phænomena, indeavoured to be made probable by several Arguments and Experiments. An Experiment of the expansion of Water by heat, and shrinking by cold: the like Proprieties suppos’d in Glass drops, and what effects proceed from them: the seven Propositions on which the conjectures are grounded. Experiments to shew, that bodies expand by heat. The manner of making Thermometers, and the Instrument for graduating them. The manner of graduating them, and their use: Other Experiments to prove the expansion of bodies by heat. Four experimental Arguments to prove the expansion of Glass by heat: further prov’d by the Experiment of boyling Alabaster; which is explicated. An explication of the contracting of heated Glass upon cooling. An explication how the parts of the Glass become bent by sudden cold, and how kept from extricating themselves by the contignation of the Glass drop; which is further explicated by another Experiment made with a hollow Glass ball: the reason of the flying asunder of the parts further explicated: that ’tis probable these bodies may have many flaws, though not visible, and why: how a gradual heating and cooling does put the parts of Glass, and other hardned bodies, into a looser texture._
Observ. 8. Of Fiery Sparks.
_The occasion and manner of making this Experiment: divers Observations set down in order to the finding out the reasons: some conjectures concerning it, which are endeavoured to be explicated and confirm’d by several Experiments and Reasons: the Hypothesis a little further explicated. Some Observations about the Globular Figure: and an Experiment of reducing the filings of Tin or Lead to exactly round Globules._
Observ. 9. Of Fantastical Colours.
The texture of Muscovy_ Glass; its Figures: what other Bodies are like it: that it exhibits several colours, and how: several Observations and Experiments about those colours: the reason why on this occasion the nature of colours is inquir’d into. A conjecture at the reason of these colours explicated by several Experiments and Reasons: First, by continual cleaving the Body till it become colour’d. Secondly, by producing all kinds of colours with two flat Plates of Glass. Thirdly, by blowing Glass so thin in the Lamp, till it produce the same effect. Fourthly, by doing the same with Bubbles of divers other transparent Bodies: the reasons of the colours on nealed Steel, where by the way the causes of the hardning and tempering of Steel, endeavour’d to be shewn and explicated by several Reasons and Experiments: the reason of the colours on Lead, Brass, Copper, Silver, &c. other Instances of such colour’d bodies in animal substances: several other distinguishing Observations. Des Cartes Hypothesis of Colours examin’d. An Hypothesis for the explication of light by motion, indeavoured to be explicated and determined by several Reasons and Experiments: three distinguishing Properties of the motion of light. The distinguishing Properties of a trasparent Medium [that there seems to be no Experiment that proves the Instantaneous motion of light] the manner of the propagation of light through them. Of the homogeniety and heterogeniety of transparent Mediums, and what effects they cause on the Rayes of light, explicated by a Figure: an Examination of the refraction of the Rays by a plain Surface, which causes Colours. An Examination of the like effects produced by a spherical Surface: the use that may be made of these Experiments, for the examination of several Hypotheses of Colours. _Des Cartes Hypothesis_ examin’d. Some Difficulties taken notice of in it. What seems most likely to be the cause of colour: that propriety is indeavoured to be shewn in a Glass ball: that the reflection is not necessary to produce Colours nor a double refraction: the Hypothesis further examined, both in the pellucid Medium and in the Eye. The definitions of Colours; and a further explication and examination of the Proprieties of laminated Bodies; by what means they conduce to the production of Colours._
Observ. 10. Of Metalline Colours.
That all Colours seem to be caus’d by refraction. An Hypothesis_ consonant hereunto, explicated by Figures. How several Experiments, of the sudden changing of Colours by Chymical Liquors may be hereby explicated: how many wayes such Chymical Liquors may alter the colours of Bodies. Objections made against this Hypothesis of two colours only, indeavoured to be answer’d, by several Reasons and Experiments. The reason why some Colours are capable of being diluted, others not: what those are: that probably the particles of most metalline Colours are transparent; for this several Arguments and Observations are recited: how Colours become incapable of diluting, explicated by a Similitude. An Instrument, by which one and the same coloured Liquor at once exhibited all the degrees of colours between the palest yellow and deepest red: as likewise another that exhibited all varieties of blues: several Experiments try’d with these Boxes. An Objection drawn from the nature of Painters colours answered: that diluting and whitening a colour are different operations; as are deepening and blackening: why some may be diluted by grinding, and some other by being tempered with Oyl: several Experiments for the explicating of some former Assertions: why Painters are forced to make use of many colours: what those colours are: and how mixt. The conclusion, that most coloured Bodies seem to consist of transparent particles: that all colours dissoluble in Liquors are capable of diluting: some of mixing, what a strange variety may thereby be produc’d._
Observ. 11. Of the Figures of Sand.
_Of the substances and shapes of common and other Sands: a description of a very small Shell._
Observ. 12. Of Gravel in Urine.
_A description of such Gravel, and some tryals made with it, and conjectures at its cause._
Obser. 13. Of Diamonds in Flints.
_A description and examination of some of them, explicated further by Cornish Diamonds: several Observations about reflection and refraction: and some deductions therefrom; as an explication of whiteness; that the Air has a stronger reflection then Water. How several Bodies may be made transparent: an explication of the Phænomena of Oculus Mundi. Of the regular Geometrical Figures of several Bodies: an hypothetical explication mentioned: the method of prosecuting this inquiry._
Observ. 14. Of frozen Figure.
_The Figures of hoar Frost, and the Vortices on windows: several Observations on the branched Figures of Urine: the Figures of _Regulus Martis stellatus, and of Fern. Of the Figures of Snow. Of frozen water.
Observ. 15. Of Kettering-Stone.
_A description of the Figure of the Particles, and of the Pores, and of the Contexture. Several Observations and Considerations thereupon: some Conjectures about the medium and propagation of light, and the constitution of fluid and transparent Bodies. Several Experiments to prove the porousness of Marble, and some other Stones. An account of some Experiments to this purpose made on an Oculus Mundi: some other Considerations and Experiments about the porousness of Bodies: some other Considerations about the propagation of light and refraction._
Observ. 16. Of Charcoal.
_Of two sort of Pores to be found in all Woods and Vegetables; the shape of them; the number, thickness, manner and use of these Pores. An explication of the Phænomena of Coals. The manner of charring Wood, or any other body. What part of Wood is combustible. An Hypothesis of fire explicated in twelve particulars, wherein the Action of the Air, as a Menstruum in the dissolution of all sulphureous bodies, is very particularly explicated, and some other Considerations about the Air proposed: the examination of a piece of Lignum fossile sent from Rome, and some Conclusions thence deduc’d._
Observ. 17. Of Wood, and other Bodies, petrified.
_Several Observations of divers kinds of these substances. A more particular examination and explication of one very notable piece of petrified Wood; and some Conjectures about the cause of those productions: several Observations made on other petrified Bodies, as shells, &c. And some probable Conclusions thence deduc’d, about the original cause of those Bodies._
Observ. 18. Of the Pores of Cork, and other Bodies.
_Several Observations and Considerations about the nature of Cork: the number of Pores in a cubical Inch, and several considerations about Pores. Several Experiments and Observations about the nature of Cork: the Texture and Pores of the Pith of an Elder, and several other Trees: of the Stalks of Burdocks, Teasels, Daisies, Carret, Fennel, Ferne, Reeds, &c. of the frothy texture of the Pith of a Feather: some Conjectures about the probability of values in these Pores. Argued also from the Phænomena of sensible and humble Plant: some Observations on which are inserted._
Observ. 19. Of a Vegetable growing on blighted Leaves.
_Several Observations and Examinations made of them: several Considerations about spontaneous generation arising from the putrefaction of Bodies._
Observ. 20. Of Blew Mould and Mushromes.
_The description of several kinds of Moulds. The method of proceeding in natural Inquiries. Several Considerations about the nature of Mould and Mushromes. 1. That they may be produc’d without seed. 2. That they seem to have none. 3. That Salts, &c. are shap’d into as curious figures without a seed. 4. Of a kind of Mushrome growing in a Candle: A more particular explication of this last sort of Mushromes. 5. Of the figure and manner of the production of petrified Iceicles: several deductions from these Considerations, about the nature of the vegetation of Mould and Mushromes._
Observ. 21. Of Moss.
_The description of several sorts of Mosses; upon this occasion several Conjectures, about the manner of the production of these kinds of Bodies, are hinted, and some of them explicated by a Similitude taken from a piece of Clock-work, The vast difference of the bigness of vegetable Bodies; and the probability that the least may comprehend as curious contrivances as the greatest. Of multitudes of other Moulds, Mosses, and Mushromes, and other vegetating Principles, in Water, Wood, _&c.
Observ. 22. Of Sponges, and other fibrous Bodies.
_Several Observations and Conjectures about the making of these Bodies, and several Histories out of Authors. Scarce any other Body hath such a texture; the fibrous texture of Leather, Spunk, &c. (which are there describ’d) come nearest to it That upon tryal with a piece of Spunge and Oyl the necessity of respiration could not be alter’d._
Observ. 23. Of the Form of Sea-weed.
_From the curiously shap’d Surface of this Sea-weed, and some others, is conjectured the possibility of multitudes of the like._
Observ. 24. Of the Surfaces of some Leaves.
_The description, 1. Of the bald Surfaces of Leaves. 2. Of the downy Surfaces of several others. 3. Of the gummous exsudation, or small transparent Pearls, discovered with a Microscope in several others. An Instance of all which is afforded in a Rosemary Leaf._
Observ. 25. Of the stinging Points of a Nettle.
_A description of the Needles and several other contrivances in the leaf of a Nettle: how the stinging pain is created: upon this several considerations about poysoning Darts are set down. An Experiment of killing Effs, and Fishes with Salt. Some conjectures at the efficacy of Baths; the use that may be made of injecting into the Veins. A very remarkable History out of Bellonius; and some Considerations about staining and dying of Bodies._
Observ. 26. Of Cowage.
The description of it out of Parkinson_: an Experiment made of it: a description, and some conjectures at the cause of the Phænomena._
Observ. 27. Of the Beard of a wild Oat.
_The description of its shape and properties: the manner of making a Hygroscope with it; and a Conjecture at the causes of these motions, and of the motions of the Muscles._
Observ. 28. Of the Seeds of Venice Looking-glass.
The description of them.
Obser. 29. Of the Seeds of Time.
A description of them. A digression about Natures method.
Observ. 30. Of Poppy Seeds.
The description and use of them.
Observ. 31. Of Purslane Seeds.
A description of these and many other Seeds.
Observ. 32. Of Hair.
_The description of several sorts of Hair; their Figures and Textures: the reason of their colours, A description of the texture of the skin, and of Spunk and Sponges: by what passages and pores of the skin transpiration seems to be made. Experiments to prove the porousness of the skin of Vegetables._
Observ. 33. Of the Scales of a Soale.
A description of their beauteous form.
Observ. 34. Of the Sting of a Bee.
A description of its shape, mechanisme, and use.
Observ. 35. Of Feathers.
_A description of the shape and curious contexture of Feathers: and some conjectures thereupon._
Obser. 36. Of Peacocks Feathers.
_A description of their curious form and proprieties; with a conjecture at the cause of their variable colours._
Obser. 37. Of the Feet of Flyes, and other Insects.
_A description of their figure, parts, and use; and some considerations thereupon._
Obser. 38. Of the Wings of Flyes.
_After what manner and how swiftly the wings of Insects move. A description of the Pendulums under the wings, and their motion; the shape and structure of the parts of the wing._
Obser. 39. Of the Head of a Fly.
_1. All the face of a Drone-fly is nothing almost but eyes. 2. Those are of two magnitudes. 3. They are Hemispheres, and very reflective and smooth. 4. Some directed towards every quarter. 5. How the fly cleanses them. 6. Their number. 7. Their order: divers particulars observ’d in the dissecting a head. That these are very probably the eyes of the Creature; argued from several Observations and Experiments, that Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, seem to be water Insects, and to be framed much like Air Insects. Several Considerations about their manner of vision._
Obser. 40. Of the Teeth of a Snail.
A brief description of it.
Observ. 41. Of the Eggs of Silk-worms.
Several Observables about the Eggs of Insects.
Observ. 42. Of a blue Fly.
_A description of its outward and inward parts. Its hardiness to indure freezing, and sleeping in Spirit of wine._
Observ. 43. Of a water Insect.
_A description of its shape, transparency, motion, both internal and progressive, and transformation. A History somewhat Analogus cited out of Piso. Several Observations about the various wayes of the generations of Insects: by what means they act so seemingly wisely and prudently. Several Quæries propounded. Postscript, containing a relation of another very odd way of the generation of Insects. An Observation about the fertility of the Earth of our Climate in producing Insects, and of divers other wayes of their generation._
Observ. 44. Of the tufted Gnat.
_Several Observables about Insects, and a more particular description the parts of this Gnat._
Ob. 45. Of the great belly’d Gnat.
A short description of it.
Obser. 46. Of a white Moth.
_A description of the feathers and wings of this, and several other Insects. Divers Considerations about the wings, and the flying of Insects and Birds._
Obs. 47. Of the Shepherd Spider.
_A description of its Eyes: and the sockets of its long legs: and a Conjecture of the mechanical reason of its fabrick; together with a supposition, that ’tis not unlikely, but Spiders may have the make of their inward parts exactly like a Crab, which may be call’d a water Spider._
Obser. 48. Of the hunting Spider.
_A short description of it; to which is annext an excellent History of it, made by Mr. Evelyn. Some further Observations on other Spiders, and their Webs, together with an examination of a white Substance flying up and down in the Air after a Fog._
Obser. 49. Of an Ant.
_That all small Bodies, both Vegetable and Animal, do quickly dry and wither. The best remedy I found to hinder it, and to make the Animal lye still to be observ’d. Several particulars related of the actions of this Creature and a short description of its parts._
Obs. 50. Of the wandring Mite.
_A description of this Creature, and of another very small one, which usually bore it company. A Conjecture at the original of Mites._
Observ. 51. Of a Crab-like Insect.
A brief description of it.
Observ. 52. Of a Book-worm.
_A description of it; where by the way is inserted a digression, experimentally explicating the Phænomena of Pearl. A consideration of its digestive faculty._
Observ. 53. Of a Flea.
A short description of it.
Observ. 54. Of a Louse.
A description of its parts, and some notable circumstances.
Observ. 55. Of Mites.
_The exceeding smalness of some Mites, and their Eggs. A description of the Mites of Cheese: and an intimation of the variety of forms in other Mites, with a Conjecture at the reason._
Ob. 56. Of small Vine-Mites.
_A description of them; a ghess at their original; their exceeding smalness compar’d with that of a Wood-louse, from which they may be suppos’d to come._
Observ. 57. Of Vinegar-worms.
A description of them, with some considerations on their motions.
Obs. 58. Of the Inflection of the Rays of Light in the Air.
A short rehearsal of several Phænomena_. An attempt to explicate them: the supposition founded on two Propositions, both which are indeavoured to be made out by several Experiments, What density and rarity is in respect of refraction: the refraction of Spirit of Wine compared with that of common Water: the refraction of Ice. An Experiment of making an Undulation of the Rays by the mixing of Liquors of differing density. The explication of inflection, mechanically and hypothetically: what Bodies have such an inflection. Several Experiments to shew that the Air has this propriety; that it proceeds from the differing density of the Air: that the upper and under part of the Air are of differing density: some Experiments to prove this. A Table of the strength of the spring of the Air, answering to each degree of extension; when first made, and when repeated. Another Experiment of compressing the Air. A Table of the strength of the Air, answering to each compression and expansion; from which the height of the Air may be suppos’d indefinite; to what degree the Air is rarifi’d at any distance above the Surface of the Earth: how, from this, Inflection is inferr’d; and several Phænomena explain’d. That the Air near the Earth is compos’d of parts of differing density; made probable by several Experiments and Observations; how this propriety produces the effects of the waving and dancing of Bodies; and of the twinkling of the Stars. Several Phænomena explicated. Some Quæries added._
1. _Whether this Principle may not be made use of, for perfecting Optick Glasses? What might be hoped from it if it were to be done?_
2. _Whether from this Principle the apparition of some new Stars may not be explicated?_
3. Whether the height of the Air may be defin’d by it?
4. _Whether there may not sometimes be so great a disparity of density between the upper and under parts of the Air, as to make a reflecting Surface?_
5. Whether, if so, this will not explicate the Phænomena_ of the Clouds. An Experiment to this purpose?_
7. _Whether the Rayes from the top of Mountains are not bended into Curve-lines by inflection? An Argument for it, taken from an Experiment made on St. Paul’s Steeple._
8. _Whether the distance of the Planets will not be more difficult to be found? What wayes are most likely to rectifie the distance of the Moon: the way of fitting Telescopes for such Observations. How to make the Observations, and how from them to find the true distance of the Moon at any time. How the distance of the Sun may be found by two Observators. The way by the Dichotomy of the Moon uncertain. That the distance of the Moon may be less then it has been hitherto suppos’d. Kepler’s Supposition not so probable: the explication of the Phænomena by another Hypothesis._
Observ. 59. Of the fixt Stars.
Of the multitudes of Stars discoverable by the Telescope_, and the variety of their magnitudes: 78. Stars distinguisht in the Pleiades: that there are degrees of bigness even in the Stars accounted of the same magnitude: the longer the Glasses are, and the bigger apertures they will indure, the more fit they are for these discoveries: that ’tis probable, longer Glasses would yet make greater discoveries. 5. Stars discover’d in the Galaxie of Orion’s Sword._
Observ. 60. Of the Moon.
A description of a Vale in the Moon; what call’d by Hevelius_ and Ricciolus, and how describ’d by them: with what substances the hills of the Moon may be cover’d. A description of the pits of the Moon, and a conjecture at their cause: two Experiments that make it probable, that of the surface of boyl’d Alabaster dust seeming the most likely to be resembled by eruptions of vapours out of the body of the Moon: that Earthquakes seem to be generated much the same way, and their effects seem very similar. An Argument that there may be such variations in the Moon, because greater have been observ’d in the Sun: because the substance of the Moon and Earth seem much alike: and because ’tis probable the Moon has a gravitating principle: this is argued from several particulars. The reason why several pits are one within another. The use that may be made of this Instance of a gravity in the Moon._
